Toxicology of Insecticides

'1 Introduction.- 1.1. Toxicolog.- 1.2. General Patterns of Pesticide Us.- 1.3. Economic and Legal Aspects of Pesticide Us.- 1.4. Reference.- 2 General Principles of Insecticide Toxicology.- 2.1. Evaluation of Toxicity.- 2.1.1. Toxicity Tests Against Insects and Other Invertebrates.- 2.1.1a. Graphical Method for Estimating LD50.- 2.1.1b. Goodness-of Fit (x2 Test) and Confidence Limit.- 2.1.1c. Symptomatological Observation.- 2.1.2. Toxicological Evaluation in Higher Animals.- 2.1.2a. Selection of Test Animals.- 2.1.2b. Acute Toxicity Data.- 2.1.2c. Chronic Toxicity and Other Nonacute Toxicity Tests.- 2.1.2d. Observation of Toxic Symptoms.- 2.2. Analytical Methods for Insecticides.- 2.2.1. Chromatographic Analysis of Insecticide Residues.- 2.2.1a. Sampling, Extraction, and Cleanup.- 2.2.1b. Separation and Detection of Residues.- 2.2.2. Other Confirmatory Techniques for Residue Analysis.- 2.2.2a. Chemical Reactions.- 2.2.2b. Spectroscopic Methods.- 2.2.2c. Biological and Biochemical Assay.- 2.3. References.- 3 Classification of Insecticides.- 3.1. History and General Groupings of Insecticidal Compounds.- 3.2. Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Insecticides.- 3.2.1.DDT Analogue.- 3.2.2. Benzene Hexachloride.- 3.2.3. Cyclodiene Compound.- 3.3. Organophosphorus Insecticide.- 3.3.1. Pyrophosphates and Related Compounds.- 3.3.2. Phosphorohalides and Cyanides.- 3.3.3. Dialkylarylphosphates, Phosphorothioates, and Phosphorodithioates.- 3.3.4. Trialkylphosphates and Thiophosphates.- 3.4. Carbamate Insecticides.- 3.4.1. Naphthylcarbamates.- 3.4.2. Phenylcarbamates.- 3.4.3. Heterocyclic Dimethylcarbamates.- 3.4.4. Heterocyclic Methylcarbamates.- 3.4.5. Oximes.- 3.5. Thiocyanate Insecticides.- 3.6. Dinitrophenols.- 3.7. Fluoroacetate Derivatives.- 3.8. Acaricidal Chemicals: Sulfonates, Sulfones, Sulfides, and Nitrogen-Containing Compounds.- 3.9. Fumigants.- 3.10. Inorganic Insecticides.- 3.10.1. Arsenicals.- 3.10.2. Inorganic Fluorides.- 3.11. Botanical Insecticides.- 3.11.1. Nicotinoids.- 3.11.2. Rotenoids.- 3.11.3. Pyrethroids.- 3.11.3a. Pyrethrum.- 3.11.3b. Synthetic Pyrethroids.- 3.12. Synergists.- 3.13. References.- 4 Modes of Action of Insecticides.- 4.1. Introduction.- 4.2. Classification of Insecticides by Their Actions.- 4.3. The Nervous System.- 4.3.1. Mammalian Nervous System.- 4.3.1a. The Somatic System.- 4.3.1b. The Autonomic Nervous System.- 4.3.1c. The Electric (Axonic) Conduction of Nerve Impulses.- 4.3.1d. The Chemical Transmission of Nerve Impulses.- 4.3.2. Insect Nervous System.- 4.4. Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Insecticides.- 4.4.1. DDT and Its Analogues.- 4.4.1a. Symptomatology and Characteristics.- 4.4.1b. Action of DDT on Nerves and Theories of Its Mode of Action.- 4.4.1c. Theories of Structure-Toxicity Relationships.- 4.4.2. ?-BHC (Lindane).- 4.4.2a. Symptomatology.- 4.4.2b. Theories of Structure-Toxicity Relationships.- 4.4.3. Cyclodiene Insecticides.- 4.4.3a. Symptomatology.- 4.4.3b. Theories of Structure-Toxicity Relationships.- 4.5. Naturally Occurring Botanical Insecticides.- 4.5.1. Pyrethroids and Synergists.- 4.5.2. Nicotinoids.- 4.5.3. Rotenoids.- 4.6. Organofluorine Compounds: Fluoroacetate and Its Analogues.- 4.7. Anticholinesterases: Organophosphorus and Carbamate Insec ticides.- 4.7.1. Organophosphorus Compounds.- 4.7.1a. Symptoms.- 4.7.1b. Inhibition.- 4.7.1c. Recovery.- 4.7.1d. Aging.- 4.7.2. Carbamates.- 4.7.2a. Action.- 4.7.2b. Symptoms.- 4.8. Inhibitors of Respiratory Enzymes.- 4.8.1. Inhibitors of the Electron Transport System.- 4.8.2. Inhibitors of Oxidative Phosphorylation.- 4.9. Inhibitors of Mixed-Function Oxidases.- 4.10. Chlordimeform and Its Analogues.- 4.11. References.- 5 Metabolism of Insecticides by Animals and Plants.- 5.1. General Types of Metabolic Activities.- 5.2. Primary Metabolic Processes.- 5.2.1. Oxidation Through Mixed-Function Oxidase Systems.- 5.2.2. Reduction.- 5.2.3. Hydrolytic Processes: Me... Mehr